Management of Business System Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Management of Business System - Research Paper Example Thus an optimal product mix consisting of only D, E, F, H, I, J, K, O, P, R has been proposed. Other products can be discontinued. Modular process design and business process management system are recommended to implement along with this revised optimal product mix. This affords flexibility and enhances the capability to handle competition. Grouping of similar products and their standardised production, while maintaining separate production lines for specialised products, is advised as specific standardisation steps. First the proposed product mix of ten items may be tested for a reasonable period, evaluated including demand fluctuations, competition and market share information. Thus a more detailed Pareto analysis can be done. The limitation of the present study is due to the available data lacking in these respects. When a company produces and sells many items, some items may fetch large incomes and some others small incomes. These incomes are related to sale price and sale volume of each product. The company is interested in maximising its total sale income with least cost, so that profit can be maximised. Reducing product mix is one way. In this paper, a situation pertaining to Chelwood Country Products is evaluated for these possibilities. Green & Krieger (1992) used Pareto analysis, sensitivity analysis, optimal product positioning, line extension, segment-based addition and response of competitors. The data provided in the case of Chelwood are not enough for such detailed study. Ordover & Panzar (1980) showed that when user demands are independent, a uniform price higher than marginal cost can be Pareto non-linear outlay schedule. When users compete for products, their demands are inter-related. Then Pareto improvement is not possible. This aspect is not known in the case of Chelwood. We may assume independent user demands. Dudek-Burlikowska & Szewieczek (2007) proposed quality research methods for estimation of sales process with Pareto analysis, Ishikawa diagram and process analysis. Process management approach is to be used in our study when better options are

Declaration Of Independence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Declaration Of Independence - Essay Example What led Jefferson to prepare this document anyway? What did the document declare? This essay sets out to answer these two questions and to show that the Declaration of Independence was because of pressing international issues in 1776. This will be achieved by investigating the many imitations and documents that have spawned since 1790 and offering comparisons of how it was received in the past and at present in and beyond the U.S. This would eventually lead us to draw inferences regarding reflections on the afterlife of The Declaration of Independence and probe the modern conception of rights, both collective and individual. Discussion First, it would be beneficial to understand the just what the declaration declared before we can be able to show its international context. Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence announced the emergence of the U.S into the international scene. For starters, before the Declaration of Independence, the term â€Å"United States of America,† had not publicly been used anywhere. This is expressed explicitly in the opening paragraph of the document, which states that the states representatives were bringing forth the thoughts of mankind, the reasons why united people had made a choice to assume the equal and separate station among the powers of the earth to which God and Law of Nature entitle them. The phrase, â€Å"powers of the earth,† can be seen to signify other sovereign states, which can be considered as the Declaration addressing an immediate international audience. I was the intention of the U.S to join the other sovereign states I the world on an equal level as an â€Å"Independent and Free State,† with full powers to conclude peace, establish commerce, contract alliances, levy war, and to carry out all other things and acts which independent states had the right of doing (The Declaration of Independence as Adopted by Congress). That intention by the U.S announced tit option to join the internatio nal community of Free and Independent states instead of the British Empire. Therefore, we can assert that the Declaration of Independence was actually a declaration of interdependence. The primary intentions of the Declaration of Independence were to legitimize the civil within the British Empire and make it a lawful war between states. By declaring American colonists as outside of hi protection, George III had turned them into rebels. Therefore, there was a need for the rebels to transform themselves from rebels to legitimate colonists. International recognition for this cause and foreign support was thus imperative. This motivation for internationalization was made clear by Paine in 1776 via his argument that custom of nations required that America had to make a declaration of Independence before any European power would attempt to mediate peace between Great Britain and Americans. Obviously, Spain or France could not help any persons they considered as rebels against another mona rch. In addition, for Americans to be considered as reliable trading partners, they grievances needed to be put before foreign courts in a persuasive manner. According to Paine, this would be impossible without the Declaration of Independence, which would ensure that the U.S took rank with other nations (Paine). According to the records of the Continental Congress, there was a strong link between the demands of International Relations and the Declaration of Independence. A resolution was tabled in Congress by Richard Lee in 1776 declaring colonies independent and at the same time, urged Congress to put in place measures that would affect the formation of foreign Alliances. This resolution was consequently adopted by Congress announcing the

Kushta Abrak Safaid Physicochemical Properties Study

Kushta Abrak Safaid Physicochemical Properties Study STUDY OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF KUSHTA ABRAK SAFAID PREPARED BY DIFFERENT DETOXIFICATION METHODS Mohd Tariq, Khaleequr Rahman, Shahid Shah Chaudhary, Mohd Zakir Corresponding author. Mohd Tariq (M.D) Abstract Background: Kushtas are organo-mineral nano-particles made by treating mineral with several herbs and subjected to precise heat treatment. In classical Unani text, various methods for the detoxification of abrak (Mica) are described. The end product of these methods is considered to be same but scientifically this claim has not been validated. Objective: The present study was aimed at comparative physicochemical evaluation of kushta abrak safaid (KAS) prepared by two different methods of detoxification, using classical as well as modern scientific parameters. Materials and Methods: Abrak was detoxified by two methods mentioned in Unani literature. After detoxification, both kushtas were prepared in furnace due to isolation of material heated, cost effectiveness and controlled heating system. Both finished products were comparatively evaluated for physicochemical characteristics including preliminary tests. Results: Floating and fineness test were positive for both the kushtas indicated correct preparation of KAS. Bulk density (0.50 ± 0.00 and 0.49 ± 0.00 gm/ml), tapped density (0.83 ± 0.00 and 0.83 ± 0.03 gm/ml), Hauser’s ratio (1.69 ± 0.00 and 1.65 ±0.01), compressibility index (40.23 ± 0.24 and 40.25 ±0.41%), loss of weight on drying (0.095 ± 0.00 and 0.094 ± 0.00%), pH of 1 and 10 % solution (9.96 ± 0.01, 9.60 ± 0.01, and 10.87 ± 0.00, 10.30 ± 0.01) total ash, acid insoluble ash, water soluble ash (93.04 ± 0.05, 5.98 ± 0.01, 6.59 ± 0.07 and 97.26 ± 0.03, 6.84 ± 0.01, 7.48 ± 0.00%); extractive values in petroleum ether, acetone, ethanol and water (0.00 ± 0.00, 0.46 ± 0.03, 1.43 ± 0.03, 5.23 ± 0.03 and 0.00 ± 0.00, 0.6 ± 0.00, 1.73 ± 0.03, 2.4 ±0.06%) were reported in KAS1 and KAS2 respectively. Conclusion: Results suggests that physicochemical constants of both kushtas were similar without any significant difference. Hence, the study scientifically validates the claims of Unani scholars that different detoxification methods of abrak do not have any significant effect on physicochemical properties of its kushtas. Key words: Detoxification, kushta, Mica, physicochemical, Unani medicine. 1. Introduction Unani means medicines which are a symbol of life. The name is derived from the word Ionian which originated in Greece. It is a time tested system of medicine dating back 5000 years.1 This system has vast description of useful metals and minerals. Earlier there was a disbelief that minerals are incompatible to humans, but now it has been reported that numbers of metallic compounds are essential for body.2 In Unani and other alternative system of medicine these metals and minerals are mostly used in calcined form called as kushta. Kushta is known by various vernacular names like Rasayana,3,4 Elixir4, Kimiya,4 Ikseer3,4, Bhasma5 etc. It is an organometallic substance treated with a quantum of heat to induce thermal decomposition in drug which produces rapid remedial effect after entering in the body. 6 In Unani system Mica (abrak) is used effectively since millennia for the treatment of various disorders. Internally, it is used in the form of kushta. But before making its kushta, it is always subjected to detoxification in order to enhance its therapeutic actions and remove the unwanted or toxic properties.7 Various detoxification procedures of abrak are mentioned in classical texts, which are still in practiced. Unani scholars claim that different detoxification methods do not implicate significant effect on physicochemical properties of the end products. However, this claim is never scientifically studied. Therefore, the present study was aimed to prepare kushta abrak safaid by detoxifying it by two different methods and comparatively inscribe the physicochemical properties of both the finished product and to observe that whether the two kushtas significantly differ from each other or not. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Materials Abrak safaid and milk were purchased from the local market in Bangalore. Ghekwar (Aloe barbadensis Mill.) was procured from the herbal garden of National Institute of Unani Medicine. Shora Qalmi (Potassium nitrate) was purchased from Shrinivasa chemical shop, Rajaji Nagar, Bangalore and was of analytical grade. 2.2 Methods of detoxification (Tasfiya) of abrak safaid Before subjecting to kushtasazi, abrak safaid was purified as per classical literature. Most of the raw drugs are procured from the mines, so there is more chance of impurities, toxicity and heterogeneous qualities. Tasfiya (detoxification) is indicated to eliminate all such impurities and to induce certain good qualities to enhance its pharmaco-therapeutic properties.8 This process results in the conversion of impure mineral into pure or organomineral form, ready to be calcined.9 If ‘tasfiya is not performed, their use is said to be injurious to the individual.10 First method of detoxification The layers of abrak were first separated by pounding with mortar and pestle (Fig 1). The small pieces of abrak were tied loosely in a bag of thick cotton cloth along with date (Phoenix dactylifera) seeds. The bag was then dipped in lukewarm water and rubbed vigorously (Fig 2). Small particles of abrak were then squeezed out of the bag. The process of dipping the bag in hot water and rubbing was repeated till all the particles of abrak were squeezed out of the bag. The particles of abrak were allowed to settle down at the bottom of the vessels and the water was decanted. The abrak particles were collected and allowed to dry. The dry particles are called abrak mahloob (Fig 3).11 Fig 1: Raw abrak Fig 2: Dhanab process Fig 3: Abrak mahloob Second Method of detoxification Abrak was heated on fire (Fig 4) until red hot (Fig 5) and then dipped in 100 ml milk (Fig 6). The procedure was repeated seven times.12 Fig 4. Raw Abrak  during heating Fig. 5 Abrak after  red hot stage Fig. 6. Abrak safaid  after dipping in milk 2.3 Method of preparation of Kushta Abrak safaid KAS was prepared as per method mentioned in Kitab ul taklees6 but with a slight modification, that instead of using the cow dung cakes it was prepared in furnace because being a closed chamber furnace gives better temperature control,9,13 isolation of material being heated, saves time and labour,13 Twelve gram abrak safaid musaffa was dipped in luab gheekwar (Aloe barbadensis) (Fig 7) and placed inside Muffle Furnace and heat was given (Fig 8). For the operation of heat, thermogram of 12 kg of cow dung cakes given by Kumar G et al was followed14 as same quantity of cow dung cakes are used for the preparation of KAS. Afterwards self cooling, 18 gm shora qalmi dissolved in 20 ml water was added (Fig 9) and again heated (Fig. 10) by following same heat pattern. After self cooling, kushta was removed and dipped in one liter water (Fig 11) and kept undisturbed for 2-3 hrs so as to remove shora qalmi. Afterwards water was removed and kushta was dried on heater. After complete drying, KAS ( Fig 12) was stored in an air tight bottle. Fig. 7 Abrak flakes dipped Fig. 8. After 1st puta (Heating) Fig. 9. Shora dissolved  in Aloe barbadensis in water added Fig. 10. After 2nd puta (Heating) Fig. 11. Kushta dipped in water Fig. 12. Final kushta abrak safaid Physico-chemical parameters The prepared kushtas were evaluated for classical parameters like organoleptic properties, classical parameters of kamil kushta (ideal kushta) like floating test, 15 grain floating test,16 fineness test15 as well as modern scientific parameters like bulk density,17 tapped density,17 Hausner’s ratio,18 Carr’s compressibility index19 in density tester by LABINDIA model no. 1025. pH in 1% and 10% solution20 by digital pH meter by Eutech instruments model no. 1544421, loss of weight on drying20 in hot air oven by LABLINE, Anmatrix instrument technologies. Total ash,21 acid insoluble ash,22 water soluble ash22 and extractive values23 were also evaluated. 3. Results and Discussion Ideally kushta should be tasteless, odorless and lusterless. Both KAS were tasteless, odorless, smooth to touch and lusterless (Table no.3). KAS1 was yellowish white and KAS2 was complete white. Floating, grain floating, finger and wall stick test were positive for both kushtas (Fig.13-18). These findings implies that both the kushtas were ideal (kamil) as per classical Unani literature. Fig.13 Floating test (KAS1) Fig.14 Rice floating on KAS1 Fig. 15.Finger test KAS1 Fig. 16 Floating test (KAS2) Fig. 17 Rice floating on KAS2 Fig. 18 Finger test (KAS2) The mean value of bulk and tapped density of KAS1 and KAS2 were 0.50 ± 0.00 gm/ml, 0.83 ± 0.00 gm/ml and 0.49 ±0.00, 0.83 ± 0.03 gm/ml respectively (Table no.4). Bulk density is the mass per unit volume of a loose powder bed. It is an essential parameter for process development of solid dosage manufacturing. It indicates the amount of powder that can fit in a space.18 The tapped density represents the random dense packing of the material and is generally higher for regularly shaped particles (i.e. spheres) as compared to irregularly shaped particles such as needles.18 The mean value of Hausner’s ratio and compressibility Index of KAS1 and KAS2 were 1.69 ± 0.00, 40.23 ± 0.24% and 1.65 ± 0.00, 40.39 ±0.25 % respectively (Table no.4). Compressibility index is a measure of relative importance of inter-particulate interactions. In a free flowing particle, these interactions are generally less significant; so bulk density and tapped density values are closer. For poo rly flowing materials, there are frequently greater inter particle interactions, which results in lower bulk density and a greater difference between bulk and tapped densities. These differences in particle interactions are reflected as compressibility index.18 Compressibility index of kushtas were greater than 37 indicated that both kushtas have very, very poor flow properties.24 However, the compressibility index of KAS1 was less than that of KAS2 indicating that KAS2 was more compressible than KAS1. Fig. 19. Comparative Bulk density, tapped density and Hausner’s ratio of raw abrak, KAS1 and KAS2 pH value of both kushta were alkaline. The pH value of KAS1 and KAS2 was 9.96 ± 0.01 and 9.60 ± 0.01 respectively in 1% and 10.87 ± 0.00 and 10.30 ± 0.01 respectively in 10% aqueous solution (Table no.4). These results are in accordance to the fact that the pH value of water solutions of metallic oxides are basic.25 The percentage of loss of weight on drying at 105 °C was found to be 0.095 ± 0.00 and 0.094 ± 0.00 in KAS1 and KAS2 respectively (Table no.4). Shelf life of kushta as mentioned in classical literature is infinite and they become more and more potent with the advent of time. This negligible moisture might be the factor responsible for high shelf life as it would not provide any medium for the growth of the microbes and restricts the chemical reactions. The mean percentage values of the total ash, acid insoluble ash, water soluble ash and water insoluble ash in KAS1 were 93.04 ± 0.05%, 5.98 ± 0.01 %, 6.59 ± 0.07% and 86.45 ± 0.07 % respectively and for KAS2 were 97.26 ± 0.03 %, 6.84 ± 0.01 %, 7.48 ± 0.00 % and 89.77 ± 0.04% respectively (Table no.4). High ash value in both kushtas showed the presence of very high inorganic content. However, KAS2 showed higher quantity of inorganic matter than KAS2. Fig. 20. Comparative total ash (TA), water insoluble ash (WIA), acid insoluble ash (AIA) and water soluble ash (WSA) of raw abrak, KAS1 and KAS2 The mean percentage of the extractive value of KAS1 in petroleum ether, acetone, ethanol and water were 0.00 ± 0.00, 0.46 ± 0.03, 1.43 ± 0.0and 35.23 ± 0.03 respectively and for KAS2 were 0.00 ± 0.00, 0.6 ± 0.00, 1.73 ± 0.03 and 5.73 ± 0.03 respectively (Table no.4). Extractive values help in the determination of the adulteration and is an index of the purity of the drug. In case of kushta extractive value is performed to extract out organic matter if present.26 Low extractive values were indicative of very low organic matter and maximum quantity of inorganic substance in both kushtas. Fig. 21. Comparative extractive values of KAS1 and KAS2 in petroleum ether, acetone, ethanol and water Table 1: Observations while detoxification of abrak Table 2: Physical Constants of raw abrak Table 3: Preliminary tests of raw abrak, KAS1 and KAS2 Table 4: Physicochemical parameters of raw abrak, KAS1 and KAS2 *LOD- Loss of weight on drying, AIA-Acid insoluble ash, WIA- Water insoluble ash, WSA- Water soluble ash 4. Conclusion The data of the present study suggests that the physicochemical characteristics of KAS1 and KAS2 were similar without any significant difference. Hence, the study validates the claim of Unani scholars that difference in detoxification methods does not have any effect on the action and uses of kushtas. Further, these kushtas should be analyzed through sophisticated analytical instruments like XRD, Particle size distribution, SEM, TEM, Energy Dispersive X Ray, AFM methods. Furthermore, work needs to be done using various animal models to evaluate the extent of absorption and their elemental effect at tissue level. References Dubey N, Dubey N, Mehta RS, Saluja AK, Jain DK. Quality Assessment of Kushta-e-Gaodanti: A Traditional Unani Medicine. Asian J. Research Chem. 2008; 1(1):46-50. Dandiya PC, Vohora SB. Research and Development of Indigenous Drugs. New Delhi: Jamia Hamdard; 1989:297 Kareem BH, Ferozuddin CH. Miftahul Khazain. New Delhi: Idara Kitabus shifa; YNM: 6, 194. Mahdihassan S. Indian Alchemy or Rasayana. New Delhi: Vikas Publication House; 1979: iii, 20,51, 52, 60, 63, 65,66. Bajaj S, Vohora SB. Anti-Cataleptic, Anti-Anxiety and Anti-Depressant Activity of Gold Preparations used in Indian Systems of Medicine. Ind Jour of Pharmacol. 2000; 32: 339-346. Kabeeruddin HM. Kitabul Taklees. New Delhi: Central Council of Research in Unani Medicine; YNM: 23, 46, 68 Khaleefatullah M, Rasheeda AM. Ilmul sayadala- The Unani pharmacy. Andhra Pradesh : Academic Publisher; 2009: 27. Neeralagi RM. Physico-Chemical Analysis and Evaluation of Antibacterial And Antifungal Activity Of Sasyaka Bhasma. Dissertation submitted to the Rajiv Gandhi university of Health Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka; 2010:13. Tariq M. Comparative Physicochemical Analysis of Kushta Nuqra Prepared by Different Methods of Detoxification. Dissertation submitted to the Rajiv Gandhi University of Health Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka; 2013: 68. Chopra RN, Chopra IC, Handa KL, Kapur LD. Chopra’s Indigenous Drugs of India. 2 Nd Ed. Calcutta: Academic Publisher; 1982:461-464. Anonymous. The Unani Pharmacopoeia of India. Part-II. Vol. 1. New Delhi: CCRUM, Ministry of H F.W. Govt. of India; 2007: 270-271. Hafeez A. Sanatal Takless. New Delhi: Central Council of Research in Unani Medicine; YNM: 87. Chaturvedi R, Jha CB. Standard Manufacturing Procedure of Rajata Bhasma. An Int Quar Jour of Res in Ayur. 2011; 32(4): 566–71. Kumar KG, Galib, Patgiri BJ. Pharmaceutical standardization of Jala shukati Bhasma and mukata shukati Bhasma. An Int Quar Jour of Res in Ayur. 2012; 33(1): 136–142. Tariq M, Chaudhary SS, Imtiyaz S. Introduction to kushta: a herbo-mineral Unani formulation. Jour of pharma and sci inno. 2013; 2(1): 14-17. Mohaptra S, Jha CB. Physicochemical characterization of ayurvedic bhasma (swarna mashika bhasma): An approach to standardization. Int Jour of Ayur Res. 2010; 1(2): 82-86. Ahmed N, Niharika G, Deepak P, Nazan S, Mohammed SA. Formulation design, characterisation and in vitro Evaluation of bilayered tablets containing Telmisartan and hydrochlorthizide. Int Jour of Biopharma. 2013; 4(1): 1-9. Qui Y, Chen Y, Zhang GZ. Developing solid oral dosage forms: Pharmaceutical theory and practice. USA: Academic press, Elseviers; 2009: 168-70. Ghosh TK, Jasti BR. Theory and practice of contemporary pharmaceutics. USA: CRC press; 2006: 299 Anonymous. Physicochemical Standards of Unani Formulations. Part 4. New Delhi: Central Council of Research in Unani Medicine; 2006: 39, 142-145. Anonymous. The Unani Pharmacopoeia of India. Vol. 2. New Delhi: GOI. Dept. of AYUSH; 2007: 116. Anonymous. The Unani Pharmacopoeia of India. Vol. 3. New Delhi: GOI. Dept. of AYUSH; 2007: 134. Anonymous. Quality Control Methods for Herbal Materials. Switzerland: WHO; 2011: 29-31 Aulton EM. Aultons Pharmaceutics. London: Churchill Livingstone, Elsevier; 2009: 176-178. Qasmi IA. Kitabul Taklees. Aligarh: Aligarh Muslim University; 2003: 13-17. Rasheed A, Marri A, Naik MM. Standardization of Bhasma: Importance and prospects. Jour of Pharmacy Res. 2011; 4(6):1931-1933.

Mechanisms and Processes of the Internet :: Computers Technology Web Essays

Mechanisms and Processes of the Internet Electronic commerce can be defined as the conduct of commerce in goods and services, with the assistance of telecommunications and telecommunications-based tools. Here, the term telecommunications can mean any existing telecommunication networks such as Public Switched Telephone Network, Integrated Services Digital Network, or even Wireless Networks. However the major and the most important telecommunication network of E-commerce is the Internet. The great possibility and potential of E-commerce has been realized with the development of the Internet. Therefore understanding how the Internet works is quite important to better understand E-commerce and to develop E-commerce applications. In this paper I will discuss the mechanisms and process of the Internet. The structure of the paper is as follows:  · The Basic Process  · Mechanisms of the Internet  · IP address and Name Servers  · Ports and Protocols II. The Basic Process When we surf the web, we type any URL in to our browser, and the desired page pop up on our screen. At the most basic level possible, the following diagram shows what happened: Our browser formed a connection to a web server, requested a page and received it. Here are the basic steps that occurred behind the scenes:  · The browser broke the URL into 3 parts: 1) The protocol ("http"), 2) the server name ("www.howstuffworks.com"), and 3) the file name ("web-server.htm").  · The browser communicated with a name server to translate the server name "www.howstuffworks.com" into an IP Address that it can use to connect to the server machine.  · The browser then formed a connection to the server at that IP address on port 80.  · Following the HTTP protocol, the browser sent a GET request to the server asking for the file "web-server.htm".  · The server returned the HTML text for the web page to the browser. The browser read the HTML tags and formatted the page onto your screen. III. Mechanisms of the Internet 1. Mechanisms The Internet is a gigantic collection of millions of computers that are all linked together on a computer network.

Literature Review How to write

Literature Review How to write BY Ravit*G1 Article 1 : Writing a Literature Review What is a Literature Review? A literature review is a survey and discussion of the literature in a given area of study. It is a concise overview of what has been studied, argued, and established about a topic, and it is usually organized chronologically or thematically. A literature review is written in essay format. It is not an annotated bibliography, because it groups related works together and discusses trends and developments rather than focusing on one item at a time.It is not a summary; rather, it evaluates previous and urrent research in regard to how relevant and/or useful it is and how it relates to your own research. A Literature Review is more than an Annotated Bibliography or a summary, because you are organizing and presenting your sources in terms of their overall relationship to your own project. Purpose A literature review is written to highlight specific arguments and ideas in a field of study. By highlighting these arguments, the writer attempts to show what has been studied in the field, and also where the weaknesses, gaps, or areas needing further study are.The review should therefore also demonstrate to the reader why the riter's research is useful, necessary, important, and valid. Questions a Literature Review Should Answer: Asking questions such as the following will help you sift through your sources and organize your literature review. Remember, the literature review organizes the previous research in the light of what you are planning to do in your own project. What's been done in this topic area to date? What are the significant discoveries, key concepts, arguments, and/or theories that scholars have put forward? Which are the important works?On which particular areas of the topic has previous research oncentrated? Have there been developments over time? What methodologies have been used? Are there any gaps in the research? Are there areas that haven't been looked at closely yet, but which should be? Are there new ways of looking at the topic? Are there improved methodologies for researching this subject? What future directions should research in this subject take? How will your research build on or depart from current and previous research on the topic? What contribution will your research make to the field?Length The length ofa literature review varies depending on its purpose and audience. In a hesis or dissertation, the review is usually a full chapter (at least 20 pages), but for an assignment it may only be a few pages. Structure There are several ways to organize and structure a literature review. Two common ways are chronologically and thematically. Chronological: In a chronological review, you will group and discuss your sources in order of their appearance (usually publication), highlighting the changes in research in the field and your specific topic over time.This method is useful for papers focusing on research metho dology, historiographical papers, and other writing where time becomes an important lement. For example, a literature review on theories of mental illness might present how the understanding of mental illness has changed through the centuries, by giving a series of examples of key developments and ending with current theories and the direction your research will take. Thematic: In a thematic review, you will group and discuss your sources in terms of the themes or topics they cover.This method is often a stronger one organizationally, and it can help you resist the urge to summarize your sources. By grouping themes or topics of research together, you will e able to demonstrate the types of topics that are important to your research. For example, if the topic of the literature review is changes in popular music, then there might be separate sections on research involving the production of music, research on the dissemination of music, research on the interpretation of music, and hist orical studies of popular music.No matter which method you choose, remember: Within each section of a literature review, it is important to discuss how the research relates to other studies (how is it similar or different, what other studies have been done, etc. as well as to demonstrate how it relates to your own work. This is what the review is for: don't leave this connection out! Source : http://www. smu. ca/ administration/library/litrev. html Article 2 : Write a Literature Review 1.Introduction Not to be confused with a book review, a literature review surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e. g. dissertations, conference proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of each work. The purpose is to offer an overview of significant literature published on a topic. 2. Components Similar to primary research, development of the literature review requires four stages: Problem formula tion†which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues?Literature search†finding materials relevant to the subject being explored Data evaluation†determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic Analysis and interpretation† discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature Literature reviews should comprise the following elements: An overview of the subject, issue or theory under consideration, along with the bjectives of the literature review Division of works under review into categories (e. g. hose in support of a particular position, those against, and those offering alternative theses entirely) Explanation of how each work is similar to and how it varies from the others Conclusions as to which pieces are best considered in their argument, are most convincing of their opinions, and make the greatest contribution to the understanding and development of their area of researc h In assessing each piece, consideration should be given to: Provenance†What are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence (e. . primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings)? Objectivity†ls the author's perspective even- handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point? Persuasiveness†Which of the author's theses are most/least convincing? Value†Are the author's arguments and conclusions convincing? Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject? 3. Definition and Use/PurposeA literature review may constitute an essential chapter of a thesis or dissertation, or may be a self-contained review of writings on a subject. In either case, its purpose is to: Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the subject under review Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies Identify areas of prior scholarship to prevent duplication of effort Point the way forward for further researchPlace one's original work (in the case ot theses or dissertations) in the context ot existing literature The literature review itself, however, does not present new primary scholarship. http://library. ucsc. edu/help/howto/write-a-literature-review What is a review of the literature? A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. Occasionally you will be asked to write one as a separate assignment (sometimes in the form of an annotated bibliography†see the bottom of the next page), but more often it is part of the introduction to an essay, research eport, or thesis.In writing the literature revie w, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e. g. , your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not Just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries Besides enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review lets you gain and demonstrate skills in two areas 1 . formation seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual or computerized methods, to identify a set of useful articles and books 2. critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies. A literature review must do these things 1 . be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are developing 2. synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known 3. identify areas of controversy in the literature 4. ormulate questions that need further research Ask yourself questions like these: . What is the specific thesis, problem, or research question that my literature review helps to define? 2. What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy? quantitative research (e. g. on the effectiveness of a new procedure)? qualitative research (e. g. , studies )? 3. What is the scope of my literature revie w? What types ot publications am I using (e. g. , Journals, books government documents, popular media)?What discipline am I working in (e. g. , nursing psychology, sociology, medicine)? 4. How good was my information seeking? Has my search been wide enough to ensure I've found all the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of sources I've used appropriate for the length of my paper? 5. Have I critically analysed the litera ture I use? Do I follow through a set of concepts and questions, comparing items to each other in the ways they deal with them?

Article Presentation Mgmt 591

Article Presentation – Leader-follower relationship What is the issue that necessitates that such an article be written? The purpose of this article is to determine who the leader is and who the follower is, how they are connected and what are the differences between them. One of the issues in this article is that the followers are not as well defined in literature as leaders, not much attention is paid to this important group. Another issue of this article is how to develop good relationship between leaders and followers.Simpson and Harris proposed 5 ways in which leader-follower relationship develop. What strategies or techniques are used to address the issue? Once we are fully connected in our leader-follower roles, we have a foundation on which to build. Trust, energy, openness and attitude can emerge from within. We will be mutually empowered to listen to each other and to be aware of proper distance and positioning. Just as dancing is an art, so too is leading and follow ing.We can execute our strategic plan and still miss our objectives if we get disconnected along the way – from ourselves or from our leader. Your conclusion and recommendations. The common theme here for leaders and followers is frequent interaction resulting in a shared understanding and a mutual respect to achieve established goals. Much like any relationship, the leader-follower/follower-leader relationship requires mutual commitment and effort, and the input and ideas of both parties needs to be valued. My recommendation is clearly define which role plays each character-leader and follower.They both are very important in any organization, and they can’t exist without each other, because one comes from another one. Provide a list of discussion questions useful for leading a discussion of the article. * How do you personally define a leader and a follower? How to become a good leader/follower? * In your organization, who is more important –leader or follower? Why? * What are the guidelines that should be at the foundation of a healthy leader/follower relationship? * In your organization or in personal life, do you have followers? Why are they following you?